Recreating an effigy chocolate pot from Veracruz, Mexico

By Aíbinn of Roxbury Mill

In May, the Shire of Roxbury Mill held our annual event, Skewered V. Our theme this year was Tenoch’s Table, a celebration of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. In my early research on the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s website I found a delightful turkey-shaped cup. This project is my attempt at recreating the cup with a mixture of period and modern methods and materials.

Fig. 1: Aíbinn of Roxbury Mill (May 2025). Recreated Turkey Vessel [Ceramic].

The vessel

The extant piece (fig. 2) is a type known as a “bridge-spout vessel,” due to how the spout forming the tail is connected to the lip of the cup. They are also known as “chocolate pots,” because it’s surmised that they were used to drink chocolate; the user might have blown into the spout to create foam on the surface of their drink (Allen, 2018; Powis, 2002); such foam was prized by the Maya, Mixtecs, Aztecs, and other cultures and polities (Grivetti, 2009a; Reents-Budet, 2006). The spout of the exemplar

and of other chocolate pots I’ve seen are designed such that they can’t be used for pouring or as a straw. This style of vessel has been found throughout Mesoamerica starting in the Preclassic (specifically 1000–600 BCE) and peaks in popularity around the late Preclassic (400 BCE–AD 250), though they continued to be made through the post-Hispanic period and after (Powis, 2002). Spouted chocolate pots are generally found in elite burials (Allen, 2018; Powis, 2002).

The vessel is in the shape of a male turkey in a mating display or strut. His snood and wattle are large and bright red. His beard, a group of stiff feathers on his breast, is erect and there are traces of blue pigment on his head and neck (Allen, 2018). The sides and lip of the vessel have been burnished to a high sheen; Allen speculates that this was

done on the sides to imitate iridescent turkey feathers (2018). The wings are lowered and the tail is raised, which are also characteristics of the strut (Scott, 2021).

The vessel was made by a skilled artisan. It has a complex design which, in addition to familiarity with basic ceramic vessel construction, would have required knowledge of when to best attach various parts, skill with sculpting, access to multiple colored oxides or slips (at least red, brown, and blue), and skill with burnishing. It was likely fired in an updraft kiln rather than in an open or pit fire, which would allow better temperature control and decrease the likelihood of breakage. By this period, ceramic artisans had centers of production and used kilns, especially for specialized pieces such as this one; in Veracruz specifically, numerous Classic-period (300–900 CE) kilns have been discovered in Matacapan (Pool, 2000).

Bridge-spout vessels and chocolate in Mesoamerica

Chocolate has a long history in Mesoamerica. Originating in South America where human use is evidenced by approximately 3500 BCE, cacao may have been first cultivated after it reached Mesoamerica (Bletter & Daly, 2006; Lanaud et al., 2024; Motomayer et al., 2002; Ogata, Gómez-Pompa, & Taube, 2006). In pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica (before 1521 CE), it was used in a variety of ways. As a drink, it was used medicinally and in political and ritual settings; for example, it was served during Mixtec wedding ceremonies (Grivetti, 2009; Vail, 2009; see also fig. 4).

Extant depictions of drinking chocolate often show it with frothy bubbles (figs. 4 & 5) or in the act of being foamed (figs. 6 & 7). The froth was an important part of drinking chocolate, prized for the way it enhanced the flavor and scent of the beverage (Reents-Budet, 2006). During a feast Moctezuma II had with Cortés in 1519,

eyewitnesses in Cortés’ group describe all the chocolate as having a foam on top (Grivetti, 2009a). At that time and starting during the Classic period (250–900 CE), chocolate drinks were often foamed by pouring them from one vessel to another or by beating them with sticks like a whisk. These methods largely replaced bridge-spout vessels, though Powis notes they remained popular with the Huastec people in northern Veracruz (2002).

One reason bridge-spout vessels are closely associated with chocolate drinks is due to the chemical analysis. Archaeologists have tested a variety of vessels, from different geographical areas and time periods, for theobromine, a compound in chocolate. Many vessels including bridge-spout vessels have tested positive for its presence. There are other plants native to Mesoamerica which contain theobromine, but they don’t contain it in quantities large enough for the results; therefore, the vessels must have contained chocolate (Hurst et al., 2002; Hurst, 2006; Powis et al., 2002; Powis, 2007).

Finally, chocolate was a prestige drink associated with politics and ritual—cacao beans were often part of tribute—and bridge-spout vessels are generally found in elite graves (Allen, 2018; Christopher, 2013; Powis, 2002; Vail, 2009). Therefore, in a grave context they may represent wealth and associated prestigious chocolate-drinking practices.

Making the pot

Tools and materials

While making the pot, I used a variety of modern tools and materials for ease and food safety. I used my hands and water, which the original artist would have. They may also have used a marine sponge to smooth the clay, as I did. They would have used a smooth object such as a rock or bone to burnish; I used a polished rock. In table 1, I suggest possible period counterparts for my other tools and materials.

Table 1: Modern tools versus period alternatives
What I used	Possible historic counterpart
Laguna Soldate 60, a medium grogged highfire clay	Locally dug clay with additives such as sand or volcanic rock for temper and strength
Rubber rib	Bone, wood, or shell ribs and scrapers
Metal needle tool Silicone sculpting tools Plastic straw	Bone, wood, or shell points and sticks Bone, wood, or shell tools or fingers Reed

Olive oil	Readily available oils such as sunflower
Engobe	Colored clay slips or oxides
Blue underglaze	Blue clay slip, likely Maya blue
Clear glaze for food safety	No glaze used

Procedure

I made a pinch pot to serve as the base of the chocolate pot. Pinch pots are made by forming a ball of clay, inserting a finger or thumb into the middle, and then gradually pinching the ball out into the shape of a bowl. Starting with a pinch pot provides a stable base to which you can add coils. I allowed the pinch pot to dry slightly to give it more structural integrity before I added my first coil. I scored and slipped the coils and the top of the pinch pot, applied the coil to the pinch pot, and smoothed its edges into the pot. I repeated the coil forming and application process while slowly bringing the coils inward to form the narrow opening and then building up to form the neck and lip of the pot. I paused periodically to allow previous coils to firm up. While I was waiting, I began sculpting the head, neck, feet, beard, and wings.

After I had formed the entire coil-built vessel and it had firmed up, I began adding the sculpted pieces. First, I added the beard by slipping and scoring, with a small coil around the edge of the join to make a more secure attachment point. Next, I added the feet by the same method and allowed the join to dry until they could support the weight of the vessel. With the feet on I was able to judge a good angle for the wing attachments (fig. 6).

While waiting for various stages to dry, I made the spout by forming a coil around a straw. I didn’t slip and score the coil due to its small size and the plasticity of the clay; instead, I just thoroughly smoothed the outside of the coil. I allowed it to firm up on the straw while I attached the head and neck. Then, I cut a hole in the vessel where the spout would attach, slipped and scored the spout and the area around the hole, and attached the spout with an additional small coil. Finally, I attached the bridge (fig. 7) and covered the entire work in plastic to promote slow drying and homogenization of moisture levels through the different parts.

Over the next two weeks, I burnished the vessel in stages. First, I smoothed the entire vessel at the leather hard stage. Then, once it was almost bone dry, I used olive oil and a smooth stone to bring the sides of the vessel to a mirror finish. Using oil provides enough moisture and lubricant to burnish without scratching the vessel but doesn’t add so much that it significantly slows drying time (Soares, 2018).

Unfortunately, I broke a wing tip off while I was burnishing the piece. The wings were bone dry and at their most brittle and I believe I knocked one against the table.

I chose to fire my piece in an electric kiln and to glaze the inside. I didn’t want to risk such a complex piece to a pit fire and I wanted the inside to be glazed for food safety. It is possible to glaze low-fire pieces, but I currently have no way to gauge the top temperature of a firing and therefore if the glaze is food safe. A common way to measure firing temperatures is with pyrometric cones which melt at specific temperatures.

After the bisque firing (~1640°F), I decorated the piece with red and brown engobes (clay slips that can be applied before or after bisque firing) and blue underglaze. I glazed the lip and interior of the vessel with a clear glaze for food safety. The piece was fired again to cone 6 (~2200ºF) for the glaze firing. Almost all the remaining gloss from the burnishing disappeared at this point, though the burnished areas remain very smooth. Finally, I reattached the broken wing tip with Gorilla glue contact cement.

But does it froth?

At Skewered, I had the opportunity to test the frothing ability of my recreation with spiced drinking chocolate (champurrado) made for the feast by Lady Leonarda Delchiaro. It was delicious but it was slightly too thick to create bubbles, and the bubbles I did create were large. I have since tested the cup with a matcha latte and with another drinking chocolate (again courtesy Lady Leonarda) and produced large bubbles but not froth both times.

My first suspicion was that the interior diameter of the tail was too wide to produce small, frothy bubbles. I contacted Dr. Filloy Nadal, the Arts of the Ancient Americas curator, who graciously responded with the dimensions of the spout. The spout of the exemplar is 4.4 cm long with a 1.5 cm diameter and an interior diameter of ±0.9 cm (L. Filloy Nadal, personal communication, July 21, 2025). The spout of my recreation is 4.5 cm long with a 2 cm diameter and an interior diameter of 1.2 cm. While my spout is larger, the difference isn’t large enough to account for the extreme difference in size of bubbles by itself.

Before I contacted Dr. Filloy Nadal, I also encountered a suggestion that unidentified plants in post-Hispanic records of chocolate recipes might have contained foaming agents in the form of ingredients with saponins (McNeil, 2006). In further research into

period and currently practiced traditional recipes I’ve found several ingredients which contain saponins. I’ve also learned that freshly made chocolate contains higher quantities of cocoa butter, which can separate out and create a foam when mixed with water.

Based on this research, my next step is to recreate a period drinking chocolate recipe and try to create a true froth with my turkey vessel.

References

Allen, L. (2018). Turkey vessel. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/317619

Bletter, N. & Daly, D. C. (2006). Cacao and its relatives in South America: An overview of taxonomy, ecology, biogeography, chemistry, and ethnobotany. In C. L. McNeil (Ed), Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A cultural history of cacao (pp. 31-68). Gainesville : University Press of Florida. http://archive.org/details/chocolateinmesoa0000unse

Christopher, H. (2013) Cacao’s Relationship with Mesoamerican Society. Spectrum, 3(1), 48-60.

Grivetti, L. E. (2009a). From bean to beverage: Historical chocolate recipes. In L. E. Grivetti & H-Y Shapiro (Eds.), Chocolate: History, culture, and heritage (pp. 99-114). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Grivetti, L. E. (2009b). Medicinal chocolate in New Spain, Western Europe, and North America. In L. E. Grivetti & H-Y Shapiro (Eds.), Chocolate: History, culture, and heritage (pp. 67-88). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Henderson, J. S. & Joyce, R. A. (2006). Brewing distinction: The development of cacao beverages in Formative Mesoamerica. In C. L. McNeil (Ed), Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A cultural history of cacao (pp. 140-153). Gainesville : University Press of Florida. http://archive.org/details/chocolateinmesoa0000unse

Hurst, W.J., Tarka Jr., S.M., Powis, T.G., Valdez Jr., F., & Hester, T.R. (2002). Cacao usage by the earliest Maya civilization. Nature, 418, 289-290.

Hurst, W. J. (2006). The determination of cacao in samples of archaeological interest. In C. L. McNeil (Ed), Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A cultural history of cacao (pp. 105-116). Gainesville : University Press of Florida. http://archive.org/details/chocolateinmesoa0000unse

Lanaud, C., Vignes, H., Utge, J., Valette, G., Rhoné, B., Garcia Caputi, M., Angarita Nieto, N. S., Fouet, O., Gaikwad, N., Zarrillo, S., Powis, T. G., Cyphers, A., Valdez, F., Olivera Nunez, S. Q., Speller, C., Blake, M., Valdez, F. J., Raymond, S., Rowe, S. M., … Argout, X. (2024). A revisited history of cacao domestication in pre-Columbian times revealed by archaeogenomic approaches. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 2972. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-53010-6

McNeil, C. L. (2006). Traditional cacao use in modern Mesoamerica. In C. L. McNeil (Ed), Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A cultural history of cacao (pp. 341-366). Gainesville : University Press of Florida. http://archive.org/details/chocolateinmesoa0000unse

Motamayor, J. C., Lachenaud, P., Mota, J. W. da S. e, Loor, R., Kuhn, D. N., Brown, J. S., & Schnell, R. J. (2008). Geographic and genetic population differentiation of the Amazonian chocolate tree (Theobroma cacao L). PLOS ONE, 3(10), e3311. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003311

Ogata, N., Gómez-Pompa, A., & Taube, K. A. (2006). The domestication and distribution of Theobroma cacao L. in the neotropics. In C. L. McNeil (Ed), Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A cultural history of cacao (pp. 69-89). Gainesville :University Press of Florida. http://archive.org/details/chocolateinmesoa0000unse

O’Neil, M. E. (2016). Chocolate, food of the gods, in Maya Art. Unframed. https://unframed.lacma.org/2016/10/27/chocolate-food-gods-maya-art

Pool, C. A. (2000). Why a kiln? Firing technology in the Sierra De Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz (Mexico). Archaeometry, 42(1), 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2000.tb00866.x

Powis, T. G., Valdez, F., Hester, T. R., Hurst, W. J., & Tarka, S. M. (2002). Spouted vessels and cacao use among the Preclassic Maya. Latin American Antiquity, 13(1), 85–106. https://doi.org/10.2307/971742

Powis, T. G. (2007). An archaeological investigation of the origins of cacao drinking: the ceramic evidence from the Gulf Coast and Pacific Coast of México. FAMSI 2007. http://www.famsi.org/reports/06047/06047Powis01.pdf

Reents-Budet, D. (2006). The social context of kakaw drinking among the Ancient Maya. In C. L. McNeil (Ed), Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A cultural history of cacao (pp. 202-223). Gainesville : University Press of Florida. http://archive.org/details/chocolateinmesoa0000unse

Scott, C. (2021). Why the strut? National Wild Turkey Federation. Retrieved May 16, 2025, from https://www.nwtf.org

Soares, T. (2018). Urban Anasazi pottery firing 2. Tony Soares Native Clays, YouTube. Retrieved May 17, 2025, from www.youtube.com/watch?v=fTKB0YOhMgc

Vail, G. (2009). Cacao use in Yucatán among the Pre-Hispanic Maya. In L. E. Grivetti & H-Y Shapiro (Eds.), Chocolate: History, culture, and heritage (pp. 3-16). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.


Fig. 4: “Cacao exchange during a wedding ceremony”; note the froth (Vail, 2009). [Unknown Mixtec artist] (1200-1521 CE). The Tonindeye (Nuttall) Codex [Painted deer skin]. The British Museum, London, United Kingdom. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E _Am1902-0308-1	Fig. 5: The black vessel on the right is topped by chocolate foam; detail courtesy Justin Kerr. [Unknown Maya artist] (600–900 CE). Vessel with Palace Scene. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California. https://collections.lacma.org/node/1903378 ; detail from http://research.mayavase.com/kerrmaya_hires.ph p?vase=6418


Fig. 6: Woman pouring chocolate between vessels to froth it. [Unknown Maya artist] (670–750 CE). The Princeton Vase. Princeton University Art Museum, Princeton, New Jersey, United States. https://artmuseum.princeton.edu/art/collections/obj ects/32221	Fig. 7: Woman pouring chocolate between vessels to froth it from Book 10, Folio 69v. [Artist C] (1577). The Florentine Codex. Digital Florentine Codex, The Getty, Los Angeles, California, United States. https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/


Fig. 7: Vessel after adding head, spout, and bridge.	Fig. 8: Vessel before final glaze firing. The gloss from burnishing is visible near the wings.

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